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Subsection 3.4.10 (Optional) — Derivation of the Error Formulae

In this section we will derive the formula for the error that we gave in equation 3.4.33 — namely

\begin{align*} R_n(x) = f(x) - T_n(x) &= \frac{1}{(n+1)!}f^{(n+1)}(c)\cdot (x-a)^{n+1} \end{align*}

for some \(c\) strictly between \(a\) and \(x\text{,}\) and where \(T_n(x)\) is the \(n^\mathrm{th}\) degree Taylor polynomial approximation of \(f(x)\) about \(x=a\text{:}\)

\begin{align*} T_n(x) &= \sum_{k=0}^n \frac{1}{k!} f^{(k)}(a). \end{align*}

Recall that we have already proved a special case of this formula for the constant approximation using the Mean-Value Theorem (Theorem 2.13.5). To prove the general case we need the following generalisation  22 It is not a terribly creative name for the generalisation, but it is an accurate one. of that theorem:

Notice that setting \(G(x) = x\) recovers the original Mean-Value Theorem. It turns out that this theorem is not too difficult to prove from the MVT using some sneaky algebraic manipulations:

  • First we construct a new function \(h(x)\) as a linear combination of \(F(x)\) and \(G(x)\) so that \(h(a)=h(b)=0\text{.}\) Some experimentation yields
    \begin{gather*} h(x)=\big[F(b)-F(a)\big]\cdot \big[G(x)-G(a)\big]- \big[G(b)-G(a)\big] \cdot \big[F(x)-F(a)\big] \end{gather*}
  • Since \(h(a)=h(b)=0\text{,}\) the Mean-Value theorem (actually Rolle's theorem) tells us that there is a number \(c\) obeying \(a \lt c \lt b\) such that \(h'(c)=0\text{:}\)
    \begin{align*} h'(x) &= \big[F(b)-F(a)\big] \cdot G'(x) - \big[G(b)-G(a)\big] \cdot F'(x) & \text{ so}\\ 0 &= \big[F(b)-F(a)\big] \cdot G'(c) - \big[G(b)-G(a)\big] \cdot F'(c) \end{align*}
    Now move the \(G'(c)\) terms to one side and the \(F'(c)\) terms to the other:
    \begin{align*} \big[F(b)-F(a)\big] \cdot G'(c) &= \big[G(b)-G(a)\big] \cdot F'(c). \end{align*}
  • Since we have \(G'(x) \neq 0\text{,}\) we know that \(G'(c) \neq 0\text{.}\) Further the Mean-Value theorem ensures  23 Otherwise if \(G(a)=G(b)\) the MVT tells us that there is some point \(c\) between \(a\) and \(b\) so that \(G'(c)=0\text{.}\) that \(G(a) \neq G(b)\text{.}\) Hence we can move terms about to get
    \begin{align*} \big[F(b)-F(a)\big] &= \big[G(b)-G(a)\big] \cdot \frac{F'(c)}{G'(c)}\\ \frac{F(b)-F(a)}{G(b)-G(a)} &= \frac{F'(c)}{G'(c)} \end{align*}
    as required.

Armed with the above theorem we can now move on to the proof of the Taylor remainder formula.

We begin by proving the remainder formula for \(n=1\text{.}\) That is

\begin{align*} f(x) - T_1(x) &= \frac{1}{2}f''(c) \cdot(x-a)^2 \end{align*}
  • Start by setting
    \begin{align*} F(x) &= f(x)-T_1(x) & G(x) &= (x-a)^2 \end{align*}
    Notice that, since \(T_1(a)=f(a)\) and \(T'_1(x) = f'(a)\text{,}\)
    \begin{align*} F(a) &= 0 & G(a)&=0\\ F'(x) &= f'(x)-f'(a) & G'(x) &= 2(x-a) \end{align*}
  • Now apply the generalised MVT with \(b=x\text{:}\) there exists a point \(q\) between \(a\) and \(x\) such that
    \begin{align*} \frac{F(x)-F(a)}{G(x)-G(a)} &= \frac{F'(q)}{G'(q)}\\ \frac{F(x)-0}{G(x) - 0} &= \frac{f'(q)-f'(a)}{2(q-a)}\\ 2 \cdot \frac{F(x)}{G(x)} &= \frac{f'(q)-f'(a)}{q-a} \end{align*}
  • Consider the right-hand side of the above equation and set \(g(x) = f'(x)\text{.}\) Then we have the term \(\frac{g(q)-g(a)}{q-a}\) — this is exactly the form needed to apply the MVT. So now apply the standard MVT to the right-hand side of the above equation — there is some \(c\) between \(q\) and \(a\) so that
    \begin{align*} \frac{f'(q)-f'(a)}{q-a} &= \frac{g(q)-g(a)}{q-a} = g'(c) = f''(c) \end{align*}
    Notice that here we have assumed that \(f''(x)\) exists.
  • Putting this together we have that
    \begin{align*} 2 \cdot \frac{F(x)}{G(x)} &= \frac{f'(q)-f'(a)}{q-a} = f''(c)\\ 2 \frac{f(x)-T_1(x)}{(x-a)^2} &= f''(c)\\ f(x) - T_1(x) &= \frac{1}{2!} f''(c) \cdot (x-a)^2 \end{align*}
    as required.

Oof! We have now proved the cases \(n=1\) (and we did \(n=0\) earlier).

To proceed — assume we have proved our result for \(n=1,2,\cdots, k\text{.}\) We realise that we haven't done this yet, but bear with us. Using that assumption we will prove the result is true for \(n=k+1\text{.}\) Once we have done that, then

  • we have proved the result is true for \(n=1\text{,}\) and
  • we have shown if the result is true for \(n=k\) then it is true for \(n=k+1\)

Hence it must be true for all \(n \geq 1\text{.}\) This style of proof is called mathematical induction. You can think of the process as something like climbing a ladder:

  • prove that you can get onto the ladder (the result is true for \(n=1\)), and
  • if I can stand on the current rung, then I can step up to the next rung (if the result is true for \(n=k\) then it is also true for \(n=k+1\))

Hence I can climb as high as like.

  • Let \(k \gt 0\) and assume we have proved
    \begin{align*} f(x) - T_k(x) &= \frac{1}{(k+1)!} f^{(k+1)}(c) \cdot (x-a)^{k+1} \end{align*}
    for some \(c\) between \(a\) and \(x\text{.}\)
  • Now set
    \begin{align*} F(x) &= f(x) - T_{k+1}(x) & G(x) &= (x-a)^{k+1}\\ \end{align*}

    and notice that, since \(T_{k+1}(a)=f(a)\text{,}\)

    \begin{align*} F(a) &= f(a)-T_{k+1}(a)=0 & G(a) &= 0 & G'(x) &= (k+1)(x-a)^k \end{align*}
    and apply the generalised MVT with \(b=x\text{:}\) hence there exists a \(q\) between \(a\) and \(x\) so that
    \begin{align*} \frac{F(x)-F(a)}{G(x)-G(a)} &= \frac{F'(q)}{G'(q)} &\text{which becomes}\\ \frac{F(x)}{(x-a)^{k+1}} &= \frac{F'(q)}{(k+1)(q-a)^k} & \text{rearrange}\\ F(x) &= \frac{(x-a)^{k+1}}{(k+1)(q-a)^k} \cdot F'(q) \end{align*}
  • We now examine \(F'(q)\text{.}\) First carefully differentiate \(F(x)\text{:}\)
    \begin{align*} F'(x) &= \diff{}{x} \bigg[f(x) - \bigg( f(a) + f'(a)(x-a) + \frac{1}{2} f''(a)(x-a)^2 + \cdots \\ \amp\hskip2.5in+ \frac{1}{k!}f^{(k)}(x-a)^k \bigg) \bigg]\\ &= f'(x) - \bigg( f'(a) + \frac{2}{2} f''(a)(x-a) + \frac{3}{3!} f'''(a)(x-a)^2 + \cdots \\ \amp\hskip2.5in+ \frac{k}{k!}f^{(k)}(a) (x-a)^{k-1} \bigg)\\ &= f'(x) - \bigg( f'(a) + f''(a)(x-a) + \frac{1}{2} f'''(a)(x-a)^2 +\cdots \\ \amp\hskip2.5in+ \frac{1}{(k-1)!}f^{(k)}(a)(x-a)^{k-1} \bigg) \end{align*}
    Now notice that if we set \(f'(x) = g(x)\) then this becomes
    \begin{align*} F'(x) &= g(x) - \bigg( g(a) + g'(a)(x-a) + \frac{1}{2} g''(a)(x-a)^2 + \cdots \\ \amp\hskip2.5in+ \frac{1}{(k-1)!}g^{(k-1)}(a)(x-a)^{k-1} \bigg) \end{align*}
    So \(F'(x)\) is then exactly the remainder formula but for a degree \(k-1\) approximation to the function \(g(x) = f'(x)\text{.}\)
  • Hence the function \(F'(q)\) is the remainder when we approximate \(f'(q)\) with a degree \(k-1\) Taylor polynomial. The remainder formula, equation 3.4.33, then tells us that there is a number \(c\) between \(a\) and \(q\) so that
    \begin{align*} F'(q) &= g(q) - \bigg( g(a) + g'(a)(q-a) + \frac{1}{2} g''(a)(q-a)^2 + \cdots \\ \amp\hskip2.5in + \frac{1}{(k-1)!}g^{(k-1)}(a)(q-a)^{k-1} \bigg)\\ &= \frac{1}{k!} g^{(k)}(c) (q-a)^k = \frac{1}{k!} f^{(k+1)}(c)(q-a)^k \end{align*}
    Notice that here we have assumed that \(f^{(k+1)}(x)\) exists.
  • Now substitute this back into our equation above
    \begin{align*} F(x) &= \frac{(x-a)^{k+1}}{(k+1)(q-a)^k} \cdot F'(q)\\ &= \frac{(x-a)^{k+1}}{(k+1)(q-a)^k} \cdot \frac{1}{k!} f^{(k+1)}(c)(q-a)^k\\ &= \frac{1}{(k+1)k!} \cdot f^{(k+1)}(c) \cdot \frac{(x-a)^{k+1}(q-a)^k}{(q-a)^k}\\ &= \frac{1}{(k+1)!} \cdot f^{(k+1)}(c) \cdot(x-a)^{k+1} \end{align*}
    as required.

So we now know that

  • if, for some \(k\text{,}\) the remainder formula (with \(n=k\)) is true for all \(k\) times differentiable functions,
  • then the remainder formula is true (with \(n=k+1\)) for all \(k+1\) times differentiable functions.

Repeatedly applying this for \(k=1,2,3,4,\cdots\) (and recalling that we have shown the remainder formula is true when \(n=0,1\)) gives equation 3.4.33 for all \(n=0,1,2,\cdots\text{.}\)

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